Artificial Reefing: An Ideal Combination of Recycling
and Nature-based Solutions to Climate Change
Gabriel J. Robinson
Bachelor of Technology,
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology
RSCH3000 – Applied Research Methods
Clare Mulcahy
April 25, 2023
Coral reefs, referred to as the ocean’s rainforests, house more than a quarter of all marine species while only taking up less than one percent of the ocean floor; sadly, 75 percent of all coral reefs are at risk due to global climate change, diseases, and other factors (Cho, 2011; NOAA, n.d.).
Some severe local threats to coral reefs include physical damage, pollution, overfishing, and coral harvest. The most significant global threats to coral reefs include increasing ocean temperatures and changing ocean chemistry (Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). The primary indicator of coral stress is a phenomenon called bleaching, which is caused by “successive warming, cooling or excessive levels of light/U.V. or wind exposure (at low tide)” and “temperature increases of only 1.5 -2°C lasting for six to eight weeks are enough to trigger bleaching” (Australian Museum, 2022). The implementation of artificial reef structures is a nature-based climate change solution, classified under “Created Ecosystems” (Brink et al., 2016) and identified as a target for “Biodiversity & Ecosystem Conservation” (Bertram et al., 2017). Artificial reef structures, such as coral nurseries and 3D-printed corals, have gained traction in the fight to conserve and protect natural reefs (Aloysius, 2020). By examining the practices used for ship and airplane recycling, the extent of use of artificial reefing, and the benefits of artificial reefing, we can understand the effectiveness and limitations of artificial reefing. These three areas of examination will point to one thing: creating artificial reef structures using sunken vessels and aircraft is the best method for combining nature-based solutions to climate change with repurposing and recycling large, out-of-use vessels and aircraft.
Artificial reefing – a one-two punch of recycling and ecosystem building – is a responsible way to dispose of decommissioned vessels and aircraft. Artificial reefing refers to the intentional sinking, or scuttling, of outdated vessels and aircraft to provide a structural foundation for coral growth (U.S. Department of Transportation, n.d.). The term “scuttling” refers to the deliberate sinking of vessels (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.) and the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) joined in co-authoring the paper titled “National Guidance: Best Practices for Preparing Vessels Intended to Create Artificial Reefs” (2006). According to the two governmental departments, the available options for managing “obsolete and decommissioned military and commercial vessels” includes recycling, scrapping, re-deployment of parts, disposal on land or at sea, or scuttling to create artificial reefs (E.P.A. & MARAD, 2006).
The guideline lists the following materials as “materials of concern” that should be cleaned or abated prior to scuttling and gives guidelines on abatement: “oil and fuel, asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls (P.C.B.s), paint, solids/debris/floatables, and other materials of environmental concern” (E.P.A. & MARAD, 2006, p. 7). Globally, the regulations broadly surrounding the dumping of vessels at sea for artificial reefing or general disposal were set out in the “London Convention,” short for the “Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972” and were revised in 1996 with the “London Protocol” (Government of Canada, n.d.).
The regulations on artificial reefing make it the most environmentally friendly form of ship recycling. According to Howard Robins, President of the Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC), preparing vessels for reefing encompasses significant recycling, including the separation and resale of metals such as brass, copper, steel, and aluminum, and the sale or donation of all usable components such as engines and anchors (personal communication, 2023, April 12). Robins explains that ethical, responsible ship cleanup practices are standard between reefing and shipbreaking; however, reefing leaves the vessel’s structure intact, whereas shipbreaking requires total deconstruction. The additional carbon emitted from the process of deconstructing and scrapping entire vessels is far higher on the pollution scale, which leads to reefing having a much smaller overall carbon footprint in comparison. As Robins puts it, when it comes to climate change, the carbon footprint is “the difference between prep and reef versus break and scrap” (personal communication, 2023, April 14). In Canada, all vessels legally prepared for reefing are subject to governmental permit approval and must meet cleanup standards and pass a final environmental inspection completed by a federally certified vessel inspector (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Legal reefing also protects human health and safety compared to shipbreaking. A study by the Taiwan Cancer Registry from 1985 to 2008 found 940 deaths and 436 new cancer cases related to exposure to harmful materials among 4,427 shipbreaking workers surveyed (Wu et al., 2015). Due to the dual environmental and health and safety benefits over other forms of vessel disposal and recycling, artificial reefing should be considered the preferred method of vessel disposal.
Some severe local threats to coral reefs include physical damage, pollution, overfishing, and coral harvest. The most significant global threats to coral reefs include increasing ocean temperatures and changing ocean chemistry (Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). The primary indicator of coral stress is a phenomenon called bleaching, which is caused by “successive warming, cooling or excessive levels of light/U.V. or wind exposure (at low tide)” and “temperature increases of only 1.5 -2°C lasting for six to eight weeks are enough to trigger bleaching” (Australian Museum, 2022). The implementation of artificial reef structures is a nature-based climate change solution, classified under “Created Ecosystems” (Brink et al., 2016) and identified as a target for “Biodiversity & Ecosystem Conservation” (Bertram et al., 2017). Artificial reef structures, such as coral nurseries and 3D-printed corals, have gained traction in the fight to conserve and protect natural reefs (Aloysius, 2020). By examining the practices used for ship and airplane recycling, the extent of use of artificial reefing, and the benefits of artificial reefing, we can understand the effectiveness and limitations of artificial reefing. These three areas of examination will point to one thing: creating artificial reef structures using sunken vessels and aircraft is the best method for combining nature-based solutions to climate change with repurposing and recycling large, out-of-use vessels and aircraft.
Artificial reefing – a one-two punch of recycling and ecosystem building – is a responsible way to dispose of decommissioned vessels and aircraft. Artificial reefing refers to the intentional sinking, or scuttling, of outdated vessels and aircraft to provide a structural foundation for coral growth (U.S. Department of Transportation, n.d.). The term “scuttling” refers to the deliberate sinking of vessels (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.) and the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) joined in co-authoring the paper titled “National Guidance: Best Practices for Preparing Vessels Intended to Create Artificial Reefs” (2006). According to the two governmental departments, the available options for managing “obsolete and decommissioned military and commercial vessels” includes recycling, scrapping, re-deployment of parts, disposal on land or at sea, or scuttling to create artificial reefs (E.P.A. & MARAD, 2006).
The guideline lists the following materials as “materials of concern” that should be cleaned or abated prior to scuttling and gives guidelines on abatement: “oil and fuel, asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls (P.C.B.s), paint, solids/debris/floatables, and other materials of environmental concern” (E.P.A. & MARAD, 2006, p. 7). Globally, the regulations broadly surrounding the dumping of vessels at sea for artificial reefing or general disposal were set out in the “London Convention,” short for the “Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972” and were revised in 1996 with the “London Protocol” (Government of Canada, n.d.).
The regulations on artificial reefing make it the most environmentally friendly form of ship recycling. According to Howard Robins, President of the Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC), preparing vessels for reefing encompasses significant recycling, including the separation and resale of metals such as brass, copper, steel, and aluminum, and the sale or donation of all usable components such as engines and anchors (personal communication, 2023, April 12). Robins explains that ethical, responsible ship cleanup practices are standard between reefing and shipbreaking; however, reefing leaves the vessel’s structure intact, whereas shipbreaking requires total deconstruction. The additional carbon emitted from the process of deconstructing and scrapping entire vessels is far higher on the pollution scale, which leads to reefing having a much smaller overall carbon footprint in comparison. As Robins puts it, when it comes to climate change, the carbon footprint is “the difference between prep and reef versus break and scrap” (personal communication, 2023, April 14). In Canada, all vessels legally prepared for reefing are subject to governmental permit approval and must meet cleanup standards and pass a final environmental inspection completed by a federally certified vessel inspector (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Legal reefing also protects human health and safety compared to shipbreaking. A study by the Taiwan Cancer Registry from 1985 to 2008 found 940 deaths and 436 new cancer cases related to exposure to harmful materials among 4,427 shipbreaking workers surveyed (Wu et al., 2015). Due to the dual environmental and health and safety benefits over other forms of vessel disposal and recycling, artificial reefing should be considered the preferred method of vessel disposal.
Reefing as a form of marine habitat building has been practiced extensively by multiple organizations and must be considered a viable nature-based solution to climate change. Since its inception in 1972, the MARAD “Artificial Reef Program” has scuttled numerous decommissioned vessels to create artificial reefs (U.S. Department of Transportation, n.d.). According to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, the U.S.S. Oriskany, a 277-meter aircraft carrier built shortly after World War II and decommissioned in September 1976, was “the first naval warship and largest artificial reef ever to be intentionally sunk in U.S. coastal waters” (n.d.). Like MARAD, the Australian Government’s Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) is the primary source for artificial reefing permits in Australian waters, with the exception being the Great Barrier Reef, which is controlled by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). The HMAS Brisbane, a 133.2-meter guided-missile destroyer decommissioned on October 19, 2001, was scuttled off the coast of Mudjimba, Australia, for use as a diving site and artificial reef (Scubaworld, n.d.; Royal Australian Navy, n.d.). The ARSBC, a non-profit group based in Vancouver, British Columbia, has consulted on and scuttled “more ships and aircraft than any other non-profit group in the world to create marine habitat” (“The Catalyst Project”, n.d.). The HMCS Annapolis, a 113-meter helicopter-carrying destroyer decommissioned
in 1996, was sold to the ARSBC in 1998 for artificial reefing (Government of Canada, n.d.). The final resting place of the Annapolis, in Halkett Bay off the South-East coast of Gambier Island, British Columbia, was chosen to “increase species abundance and diversity in the area” because of “historical log boom storage in this area, [which caused] habitat potential [to be] reduced compared to other nearby sites” (Gibbs, Miller, & Pemberton, 2020). Robins explains that the rotting and decomposition of logs stored in Halkett Bay caused the waters to deoxygenate, damaging the environment for marine life (personal communication, 2023, April 14). Since reefing the Annapolis, the photosynthesis of marine vegetation growing on the artificial reef has caused reoxygenation, thereby rehabilitating the marine ecosystem. According to Robins, a full-scale skeletal replica CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the aircraft historically used on the Annapolis, will be built starting in 2023 and placed in its original landing spot on the ship’s flight deck as a “Marine Amplification project” (personal communication, 2023, April 12). Robins described the “Sea King Project” as an idea developed to supplement the Annapolis reef by adding increased habitat complexity to the ship’s flight deck; this added area will encourage extra reef growth by adding more complex marine habitation space where budding marine life can incubate and grow. The added benefit of the Sea King project will be the addition of a historically relevant novelty to the Annapolis Reef for eco-adventure scuba diving tourism, something Robins states to be a major draw for divers visiting the site (personal communication, 2023, April 12). The Sea King project pays tribute to the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal Canadian Air Force, the original operators of the vessel’s Sea King helicopter. In total, the ARSBC has placed nine artificial reefs along the Southern coastlines of British Columbia, including vessels such as the Annapolis, the G. B. Church, the Chaudière, the Mackenzie, the Columbia, the Saskatchewan, the Cape Breton, the YOGN-82, and a Boeing 737 commercial jet (“Visit Our Reefs”, n.d.). The ARSBC is now in consultation with other organizations, including industry and Government, to add to its underwater fleet of artificial reefs (Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). The G. B. Church, the first reef placed by the ARSBC on August 11, 1991, was sunk on flat ground within the boundaries of the Princess Margaret Marine Park near Sidney, Vancouver Island, British Columbia (“MV G. B. Church, 1991”, n.d.). The site for the G. B. Church was selected based on the topography, which allowed easy vessel placement and the proximity to local dive shops and charter operators, benefitting local economies. Reefing aircraft carries a greater logistical challenge as the aircraft must be partially deconstructed for transportation, leading to aircraft reefing not being practiced to the same extent as vessels. Both the Turkish Government and the Government of Bahrain have scuttled aircraft to create artificial reefs and promote diving tourism (Hayward, 2021; Dive Bahrain, n.d.). The Turkish Government has scuttled multiple aircraft, including an Airbus A330, an Airbus A300, and a Douglas DC-2, while the Government of Bahrain scuttled the first Boeing 747 intentionally used as an artificial reef. The extensive global use of vessels and aircraft in artificial reefing indicates that this widely accepted practice is advantageous for using nature-based solutions to fight marine biodiversity loss.
in 1996, was sold to the ARSBC in 1998 for artificial reefing (Government of Canada, n.d.). The final resting place of the Annapolis, in Halkett Bay off the South-East coast of Gambier Island, British Columbia, was chosen to “increase species abundance and diversity in the area” because of “historical log boom storage in this area, [which caused] habitat potential [to be] reduced compared to other nearby sites” (Gibbs, Miller, & Pemberton, 2020). Robins explains that the rotting and decomposition of logs stored in Halkett Bay caused the waters to deoxygenate, damaging the environment for marine life (personal communication, 2023, April 14). Since reefing the Annapolis, the photosynthesis of marine vegetation growing on the artificial reef has caused reoxygenation, thereby rehabilitating the marine ecosystem. According to Robins, a full-scale skeletal replica CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the aircraft historically used on the Annapolis, will be built starting in 2023 and placed in its original landing spot on the ship’s flight deck as a “Marine Amplification project” (personal communication, 2023, April 12). Robins described the “Sea King Project” as an idea developed to supplement the Annapolis reef by adding increased habitat complexity to the ship’s flight deck; this added area will encourage extra reef growth by adding more complex marine habitation space where budding marine life can incubate and grow. The added benefit of the Sea King project will be the addition of a historically relevant novelty to the Annapolis Reef for eco-adventure scuba diving tourism, something Robins states to be a major draw for divers visiting the site (personal communication, 2023, April 12). The Sea King project pays tribute to the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal Canadian Air Force, the original operators of the vessel’s Sea King helicopter. In total, the ARSBC has placed nine artificial reefs along the Southern coastlines of British Columbia, including vessels such as the Annapolis, the G. B. Church, the Chaudière, the Mackenzie, the Columbia, the Saskatchewan, the Cape Breton, the YOGN-82, and a Boeing 737 commercial jet (“Visit Our Reefs”, n.d.). The ARSBC is now in consultation with other organizations, including industry and Government, to add to its underwater fleet of artificial reefs (Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). The G. B. Church, the first reef placed by the ARSBC on August 11, 1991, was sunk on flat ground within the boundaries of the Princess Margaret Marine Park near Sidney, Vancouver Island, British Columbia (“MV G. B. Church, 1991”, n.d.). The site for the G. B. Church was selected based on the topography, which allowed easy vessel placement and the proximity to local dive shops and charter operators, benefitting local economies. Reefing aircraft carries a greater logistical challenge as the aircraft must be partially deconstructed for transportation, leading to aircraft reefing not being practiced to the same extent as vessels. Both the Turkish Government and the Government of Bahrain have scuttled aircraft to create artificial reefs and promote diving tourism (Hayward, 2021; Dive Bahrain, n.d.). The Turkish Government has scuttled multiple aircraft, including an Airbus A330, an Airbus A300, and a Douglas DC-2, while the Government of Bahrain scuttled the first Boeing 747 intentionally used as an artificial reef. The extensive global use of vessels and aircraft in artificial reefing indicates that this widely accepted practice is advantageous for using nature-based solutions to fight marine biodiversity loss.
It is important to note that though artificial reefing is widely practiced and accepted as a nature-based solution to climate change, it also has several limiting factors. Vessels and aircraft must be assessed for reefing viability, a task performed by various regulatory bodies and non-profit organizations worldwide, including MARAD and the ARSBC. The cost to prepare vessels for reefing can be high and must be considered when assessing vessel viability (E.P.A. & MARAD, 2006, p. 39); however, it is more cost-effective than other forms of legal, responsible disposal, in some cases being a fraction of the cost (Robins, personal communication, 2023, May 3). Similarly, the cost of permits may also be restrictive, with the cost for artificial reefing permits from the DCCEEW being $10,000 (“Placement of artificial reefs”, n.d.); however, not all permitting bodies charge the same, with Environment Canada only requiring around $2,800 per permit (Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Improper planning or environmental evaluation in preparation for reefing can lead to natural habitat damage, leading to artificial reefing being tightly regulated around the globe. The regulation of artificial reefing ensures protection for natural habitats, natural ecology, oceanic transportation, and local commerce (NOAA, n.d.).
Despite the limiting factors listed above, the noted and studied benefits of Artificial reefing far outweigh the limitations. Compared to shipbreaking, the reduced labour required for reefing makes reefing a cost-effective form of vessel disposal (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Artificial reefs provide economic benefits from eco-adventure diving tourism and jobs created by the preparation and recycling processes (“MV G. B. Church, 1991”, n.d.; Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). The strategic placement of artificial reefs can encourage marine habitation, change current patterns, and combat erosion and sedimentation rates (Turner et al., 1969; Davis et al., 1982, as cited in Ambrose & Anderson, 1990). “When we put down a ship, it's not like we’re throwing a dart at where we put it" (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Artificial reefs are generally planned and placed in featureless marine areas such as isolated sand plains and away from rocky reefs (Ambrose & Anderson, 1990, p. 1; MARAD, n.d.), which promotes new reef growth and habitat recruitment for marine species (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 14). The Annapolis Biodiversity Index Study (ABIS), a five-year study of the Annapolis reef, initiated by the ARSBC in the summer of 2016 in concert with marine taxonomists from the Vancouver Aquarium, found that only eight years after its reefing, nearly 50 unique marine species were inhabiting the Annapolis, with the updated tally being 161 recorded species as of 2019 (Gibbs, Miller, & Pemberton, 2020). The MHAS Brisbane is now home to hundreds of marine species, including over 300 species of fish, sponges, soft and hard corals, turtles, and rays (Scubaworld, n.d.). “Each artificial reef has a unique biological profile” (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 12). Robins explains that long-term marine habitation begins with hazy algae growth and continues in two manners: “whatever crawls onto the ship off the sea floor” and “current depositing embryonic material into cracks and crevices.”
Robins explains that artificial reefs become the platform for new reef development in sandy sea floor conditions, where embryonic material would otherwise settle to the sea floor and die or be consumed. Finally, the photosynthesis of marine vegetation on artificial reefs acts as a carbon sink (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 14). In contrast, the filtering effects of certain marine species inhabiting the reefs help to clean the surrounding waters. The numerous benefits of artificial reefing, some of which will only grow as artificial reefs age, point to the distinct advantage of reefing as a long-term strategy.
Artificial reefing is a widely studied and practiced nature-based solution to marine biodiversity loss and climate change, with numerous additional benefits for health, safety, the economy, and the environment. When considering the multiple benefits of artificial reefing, primarily environmental stewardship, the extent of global practice, and the boost to marine biodiversity, it is clear that artificial reefing is the best combination of nature-based solutions to climate change and vessel and aircraft recycling and disposal.
Robins explains that artificial reefs become the platform for new reef development in sandy sea floor conditions, where embryonic material would otherwise settle to the sea floor and die or be consumed. Finally, the photosynthesis of marine vegetation on artificial reefs acts as a carbon sink (H. Robins, personal communication, 2023, April 14). In contrast, the filtering effects of certain marine species inhabiting the reefs help to clean the surrounding waters. The numerous benefits of artificial reefing, some of which will only grow as artificial reefs age, point to the distinct advantage of reefing as a long-term strategy.
Artificial reefing is a widely studied and practiced nature-based solution to marine biodiversity loss and climate change, with numerous additional benefits for health, safety, the economy, and the environment. When considering the multiple benefits of artificial reefing, primarily environmental stewardship, the extent of global practice, and the boost to marine biodiversity, it is clear that artificial reefing is the best combination of nature-based solutions to climate change and vessel and aircraft recycling and disposal.
References
Aloysius, S. L. M. (2020, March 16). Artificial Corals: Improving the Resilience of Coral Reefs (part II). Earth.org.
Ambrose, R. E., & Anderson, T. W. (1990). Influence of an artificial reef on the surrounding infaunal community. Marine Biology, 107(1), 41-52.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). MV G. B. Church, 1991.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). The Catalyst Project.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). Visit Our Reefs.
Australian Museum. (2022, January 4). Coral Bleaching.
Cho, R. (2011, June 13). Losing Our Coral Reefs. State of the Planet. Columbia Climate School.
Aloysius, S. L. M. (2020, March 16). Artificial Corals: Improving the Resilience of Coral Reefs (part II). Earth.org.
Ambrose, R. E., & Anderson, T. W. (1990). Influence of an artificial reef on the surrounding infaunal community. Marine Biology, 107(1), 41-52.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). MV G. B. Church, 1991.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). The Catalyst Project.
Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia. (n.d.). Visit Our Reefs.
Australian Museum. (2022, January 4). Coral Bleaching.
Cho, R. (2011, June 13). Losing Our Coral Reefs. State of the Planet. Columbia Climate School.
